Developing connectivity between education and work - book overview

 This book, developing connectivity between education andwork: principles and practices is edited by E. Kyndt, S. Beausaert and I.Zitter and published in 2022 by Routledge. Accessed via the Ara library as an ebook.

The book has 11 chapters plus a preface and a conclusion, collated into 4 sections.

Section 1 – setting the stage has 3 chapters covering the main theoretical frameworks on how education should be and can be connected to work.

Chapter 1.1 by Päivi Tynjälä, Simon Beausaert, Ilya Zitter and Eva Kyndt – connectivity between education and work: theoretical models and insights – overviews the main models informing the various authors.  These include the integrative pedagogy model which is modified from work (2021) by Tynjälä, Heikkinen and Kallio. This model includes “(1) application of theoretical (conceptual/declarative) knowledge into practice; (2) explication and conceptualisation of practical (experiential/procedural) knowledge; (3) problem solving; (4) integrative thinking; and (5)
socially responsible, ethical action and interaction”. These are facilitated by pedagogical tools provided by schools or work. The tools mediate between the different knowledge forms and there is an emphasis on the socio-cultural aspects of learning through guidance and feedback to support learning.

Summarised the various forms of curriculum planning used in VET – traditional, experiential, generic, work process model and connective model.; and in HE – science-based renewal model, specialist model, project-based integrative model, model of networked culture and the connected curriculum model (Fung, 2017).  Proposed the need to align, incorporate or hybridise as a means to bring both the school and the work context together.

Chapter 1.2 on ‘rethinking the connective typology of work experience: the challenge of learning through internship’ is by David Guile and Ann Lahiff. Introduces, rationalises and provides examples of the connective typology of work experience and how it has evolved through work activity, work experience and internship. Compares how various models of work activity (as per work from Leontev) have morphed into and match the models of traditional experiential, generic, work process, connective and internship as in detailed in the previous chapter.

Chapter 1.3 follow with ‘integrating workplace learning in formal educational programmes’ is by David Gijbels, Piet Van den Bossche, Vincent Donche and Jetje De Groof. Reviews the work on ‘the workplace as a formal learning context’ and reports on a Delphi study to better understand the organisation of workplace learning. A model of integrating workplace learning in formal educational programmes is then proposed. To begin competencies need to be specified through the development of an instructional line on how best to integrate workplace learning into the curriculum; competences can then be formulated; then the acquisition of competences requires alignment of these to the workplace and offering guidance in the workplace; competencies of learner, workplace and educational institute are then evaluated.

The next section covers ‘designing across boundaries’

2.1 is written by Ele Holvoet and Delphine Wante with a chapter on ‘teacher externships: designing a boundary crossing professional initiative in higher education’. A good example is presented, described, and evaluated in this chapter. The ‘designable’ elements in boundary crossing between ‘school’ and work are identified as the spatial (where is learning situated); instrumental (tools and instruments to perform the work); temporal (timeframe); and social (the actors in each context). These are then aligned through studying cases of learners in teacher externship to identify processes which support the boundary crossing effort.

2.2 ‘Learning at the interface of higher education and work: experiences of students, teachers and workplace partners is with Päivi Tynjälä, Anne Virtanen, Maarit H. Virolainen
and Hannu L.T. Heikkinen. Applies the 3-P model of student learning to workplace learning. The 3 Ps are presage, process and product. Each is ‘unpacked’ to inform better implementation and support of workplace learning for learners, teachers and workplace representatives.

2.3 with Niek van den Berg, Pieter Seuneke and Frank de Jong on ‘boundary crossing in vocational education and research: the case of regional learning. This chapter details a project to foster collaboration between a college and its regional partners (employers, entrepreneurs, city councils, local communities etc.). The journey from initiation based on ‘desk study’, through to what happened at actual implementation and practice, and recommendations for further development are presented.

Section 3 focuses on ‘boundary objects of connectivity’

3.1 is on ‘teachers’ use of digital boundary objects to connect school and workplace-based learning in dual vocational education by Nina Kilbrink, Ann-Britt Enochsson, Annelie Andersén
and Annica Ådefors. Reports on how an identification model of boundary crossing with boundary objects is used to move from coordination to reflection and transformation. Identification is used at each stage to help shift learning from one to the next. Similar to the SAMR model whereby each stage of support is enhanced and improved through reflective study and learning. Shifting from tools to communicate and standard resources to using interactive technology (chat, discussion forum) and then to applying technology that can change the way teaching occurs.

3.2 is on ‘digital tools as boundary objects to support connectivity in dual vocational education: Towards a definition of design principles’ by Alberto A.P. Catteneo, Jean-Luc Gurtner and Joris Felder. Uses the context of chef training and the use of ‘portfolios’ to illustrate design principles for using digital tools as boundary objects to support learning. Proposes design principles – trust-based systemic culture; reciprocal peeking into the neighbour’s garden; tripartite engagement; flexible defined access; and bi-located reflection in action.

The last section covers ‘guidance for connectivity’

Chapter 4.1 by Wendy Nuis and Simon Beausaert on ‘fostering students’ reflection and employability competences through a mentoring programme in higher education’. Defines mentoring, describes the formal and supportive processes and the need to develop strong mentor-mentee relationships and summarises various ways mentorship may be enacted.

4.2 is on ‘ collaborative communication between teachers and company supervisors for integrative teaching: an exploratory study in Australia, Germany and Switzerland by Viviana Sappa, Sarojni Choy and Carmela Aprea. Overviews the ways support is provided to learners in the workplace through collaborative conversations, and the design of arrangements to integrate learning at school and in the workplace. Covers the various ways each country offers support. Investigates whether the support,  collaboration and integration actually occurs. Found that in the main, this occurs but improvements can still be made, especially in more expansive coordination and cooperation to enhance integrative learning for students.

 4.3 is with Anne Khaled, Marco Mazereeuw and Machiel Bouwmans with a chapter on ‘pedagogic strategies at the boundary of school and work’. The pedagogical strategies for guiding at the boundaries of school and work are introduced and discussed. Uses the ways which teachers ;notice’ , ‘frame’ and then ‘intervene’ as ways to better understand what takes place when teaching and learning integrates learners’ experiences from work.

The Conclusion by the editors sums up ‘on principles for connectivity between education and work’.  The main principles across the book are summarised: design in collaboration with labour parties (stakeholders); develop a common language; prepare learners deliberately (to gather the learning afforded at work); make boundaries between education and workplace more ambiguous; provide students with guidance in professional growth; provide a variety of working environments and provide space for mistakes and repetition; provide space to discover professional culture; support the workplace mentor; organise reflection and feedback; and ensure the quality of workplace learning.

Written with the European context and perspectives but there are good summaries and discussions of relevance to inform practice and policy across other countries.

Micro-lectures and active learning - resource overview

Working on the structure of a 'earn while you learn' model a proposed programme. Half the courses require the learning of facts and the other half is practice-based. Supporting the practice-based courses will require capability building for our teachers teaching in the disciplinary as they are more used to f2f delivery. Learners will need be in employment and naturally-occuring evidence will need to be collected by learners as work is conducted. These courses will need to be supported as per 'managed apprenticeship' to guide the assessment of learning outcomes, completed at the workplace. There may be a short RCC/RPL process to cross-credit learning already achieved - perhaps 50 credits of learning.

The 'knowledge' courses will need to be run mostly through distance studies. So this resource from educause is useful as it provides the 'how to' from a logistical and pedagogical angle. We may need to support the 'microlectures' with fortnightly 'tutorials' to help learners with areas where they may have to surmount a 'threshold' concept'. Block courses and day-release type arrangements will be logistically difficult, given the learners will be shift workers.

Moving down to Level 3 - the challenge with practice-based learning

 On Wednesday, most of Aotearoa moves down from the strict Level 4 lockdown, to Level 3. Auckland and Northland remain at Level 4 as almost all the cases (400 +) have been situated there. They will remain at Level 4 for at least 2 weeks, signalling that the rest of the country will remain at Level 3 for at least 2 weeks as well.

Level 3 has been described as Level 4 with takeaways but the business community, frustrated at the restrictions and implications for their businesses. Many businesses are able to open but without dine-in or any close contact activities (i.e. hairdressing, gyms etc.). In education, the majority will be through distance learning with some leeway for students requiring learning situated in labs. Ara interprets this to also mean workshops, training kitchens, studios etc. The challenge is the number of students allowed into the practice area. Last year, the maximum was 20 but with 2 metre spacing, the actual number was more like 10. This makes it a challenge as most practice-based programmes have class cohort sizes of around 18 to 20. Splitting the class into half has challenges of doubling the teacher ratio.

Our learning design recommendations the use of a flipped classroom concept. One 1/2 of the class prepares for their practice session and the other 1/2 has a practical session. Then, the groups change over, with one 1/2 doing the preparation/reflection and 1/2 back into the practical workshop. The 1/2 of the class doing the preparation/reflection undertakes this through online 'attendance' with a check-in zoom session. These online sessions could consist of several combined cohorts in the same year and be managed by one tutor (or academic manager) whilst the other 1/2 of the class learns in practical workshops. 

We will need to evaluate this approach when Level 3 ends, to see how effective it has been from the learners and tutors perspectives. 

FLANZ - DAY 2 afternoon

 

After lunch, I present ‘a model for supporting flexible practice-based learning'. Basically a summary of the concepts and discussions for the forthcoming book ‘digitally-enabling ‘learning by doing’ for vocational education’. Practice-based learning can be difficult to deliver fully online. However, by focusing on the main purposes of practice-based learning and ensuring these were supported is recommended. Important to support access to ‘rich’ pedagogical experiences/authentic learning using a range of strategies (not all digital); modelling of practice; helping to make ‘thinking visible’; and guiding learning. A framework – the push-connect the learning-pull approach may be useful to help decide on what to provide to learners (push); how to bring participation from learners (pull); and the importance of learning sessions to consolidate learning (connect the learning).

Following is M. Armstrong Wilcocks presenting on ”flexible learning for gifted learners: gifted online”. Summarised the needs of gifted learners (6 – 13 years old). NZ Centre for gifted education is a not for profit who empower extraordinary minds. There are systems support but not only school support is required by outside of school as well. Gifted online is used to provide flexible learning – with gifted lens. In general, provides resources for specialist curriculum, specialist pedagogy advise to allow for personalisation of learning and to help them develop autonomy and self-direction. Shared the specialist curriculum which consist of content strands (conceptual, talent and personal development) and process strands (research, communication and complex thinking). Summarised various programmes available to support students. 

The last session is ‘the great debate’ around the theme ‘learners do not achieve their full potential under flexible learning conditions’. Each debater had 3 minutes to make their point with a one minute wrap up from each team. Good points from each side :) 

Overall, an interesting range of presentations and conversations across the two days. The opportunity to network with a small group of kindred spirits much appreciated. There were a few small technical glitches as the conference used zoom rather than a dedicated conference platform. However, these disruptions were minimal and did not detract from the presentations. My thanks to the tech team and colleagues at the University of Canterbury (UC) satellite for their support and collegiality. 

 

CRADLE 2020 - Day two 'morning' presentations

 

Day two begins with presentations on assessment in a post digital world. The presenters are Associate Professor Phillip Dawson, Associate Professor Rola Ajjawi and Professor Margaret Bearman (researchers from CRADLE at Deakin). The discussant is Professor Michael Henderson from Monash University.

The symposium began with Michael acknowledgement of Country. Each of the presenters shared their work – which are chapters in the book – reimagining university assessment in a digital world.

Rola begins by presenting on ‘assessment as portrayal and the strategic negotiation of persona’. Began with the impact on digital technology on work – permeates everything, blurring professional and private life, careers becoming more fluid and greater portrayal of digital identities. Assessments are for certification, guide learning, help with employability and learning how to make evaluative judgements. Completing the qualification recognised with award and transcript but does that portray who the graduate is?? Proposed assessment-as-portrayal to enable students to portray their achievements in public ways, communicate directly with others. Examples include the use of graduate learning outcomes through portfolios/credentials etc. Another pathway may be through persona studies used by celebrities. Persona can be considered as a strategic identity (Marshall & Henderson, 2016). Five dimensions of persona include the public, mediatised, performative, collective and intentional value and reputation. Reimagining assessments using persona studies involves introduction of a subjective dimension to assessment practices, a rethink of how we judge the quality of portrayal for future work; and encouragement of student agency. Concluded with some important questions on how portrayal may work.

Margaret covered the topic ‘assessment for an AI-mediated world’. What does AI do well? – identify patterns more accurately than humans, faster and at scale. However, this is a myth. Automated essay grading is available but restricted to appropriate topics and tasks. The systems are bounded by the quality of the original data set! If a machine is able to grade a task, then it can do the task. Therefore assessments need to be centred around unique human capabilities – evaluative judgements, deployment of meta-intelligence (i.e. knowing about how you know). Assessments that promote EJ is not just about identifying but the ability to construct their own sense about quality withing a unique practice environment. Assessments can promote EJ through cycles of self, peer and educator assessments. Assessment should develop personal epistemology. Deliberately call attention to the EJ process. Use example rubrics to form powerful epistemic artefacts. Ask learners to question the role of rubrics (Bearman & Ajjiwi, 2019). Assessment tasks should prompt students to answer questions on – what qualities make this a good piece of work? If I were to set the criteria for success, what will it look like? How do we know we have achieved?

Phillip presented on ‘surveillance and the weaponization of academic integrity’. At the moment, Higher ed (HE) assessment has a surveillance culture, this may be OK but we should fear the weaponization of surveillance on academic integrity’. Drones, webcams and other tools collect data on student learning. Argued that presently, a surveillance culture pervades society and this is seen as acceptable by many ‘for our own good’. Surveillance culture’s effect on assessments include the creation of a culture of distrust; frames students as being in need of monitoring; students and their data become a product; academic integrity becomes a game of submitting to or subverting surveillance; and there eventuates an acceptance of the surveillance. There needs to be a balance between surveillance and academic integrity. Assessment security may be adversarial, punitive and evidence based but academic integrity is positive, educative and supportive.

 

Session one DAY 2: Learning through and for work is with Associate Professor Gloria Dall’Alba from the University of Queensland. She presents on ‘toward a pedagogy of responsive attunement in educating for the professions’.

Rhea Liang introduces the session.

Placed the presentation in the current context, where ‘fake news’ is of concern. Society relies on truthfulness. When fake news disrupts the standard discourse, it causes frustration and disillusionment. Proposes responsive attunement as a means to ensure professional are able to evaluate information in a studied and evidence based approach. Therefore, it is important to ensure our ‘way of being-in-the-world’ (Heidegger, 1962) is anchored in the ability to evaluate and respond to information. Advocated for ‘the capacity to care’ (Noddings, 2005) as a mark of personhood. Need to listen to the multiplicity of perspectives, and to be able to assess their importance. Learning incorporated what we know and do (epistemological) but also how we are learning to be (ontological). Being attuned allows professionals to work through complexities and ethical dimensions. Responsive attunement is responding on the basis of tuning in to others and things, with reflexivity. Responding includes sensate, motile, emotional – i.e multimodally. Education needs to begin the process so professionals are prepared for the challenges posed at work. Implications summarised as – highlighting tuning in and responding, focus on programme goals, reward in assessment, address embodied learning, have well-integrated program and ensure epistemological and ontological dimensions addressed.

Then a session with Dr. Emma Scholz from Charles Sturt University on ‘Professional identity development : Implications for sustainable assessments’. Presents on work with Franziska Trede.

Emphasis on professional identity development in the workplace and the bringing in of Bloom’s taxonomy to assist the process. Presented the concept of locating professional identity in a practice theory framework – in the context of first year of practice for new graduate veterinarians. Research focus needs to be grounded in ‘individuals in their social practice’. Detailed sequential analysis process to thematically analyse interviews and field notes. Themes than taken back to the data to construct key stories. These underwent dialogic analysis to provide for the narratives. Theme on practice capability, the learning professional, striving to become a capable practitioner, and mobilising criticality within capability, shared with interview vignettes. A screen shot of a key story presented. Proposed implications for practice.

Stephen Billett - Learning through practice - overview of work and bibilography

I prepared this list for a colleague of mine, starting on her PhD journey. She is researching practice-based learning. As many people find Billett's work to be 'dense' and as much of it is now considered the seminal articles on workplace and practice-based learning, I looked into providing her with a smooth introduction into his work.

Firstly, there is a short video (under 4 minutes) which provides a good overview.  As Stephen was my PhD supervisor, I had the opportunity to gain familiarity with his work over a period of time. His first seminal articles on workplace learning were published in the 1990s and early 2000s. I advise other scholars, interested and beginning in the field of workplace learning, practice-based learning and learning through practice to at least read 3 to 4 of Stephen’s articles from the 1990s. They set up a good background for his current work.

The seminal papers on various topics include:

Workplace learning – including concepts of affordances / interdependencies

Billett, S. (1996). Situated learning: Bridging sociocultural and cognitive theorising. Learning and Instruction, 6 (3), 263–280.

Billett, S. (2001). Learning at work: workplace affordances and individual engagement. Journal of Workplace Learning, 13(5), 209-214.

Billett, S. (2002). Toward a workplace pedagogy: Guidance, participation, and engagement. Adult Education Quarterly, 53(1), 27-43.

Billett, S. (2002). Workplace pedagogic practices: co-participation and learning. British Journal of Education Studies, 50(4), 457-481. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8527.t01-2-00214

Billett, S. (2003). Sociogeneses, activity and ontogeny. Culture and Psychology, 9(2), 133-169.

Identity – subjectivities

Billett, S. (2006). Constituting the workplace curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36 (1), 31-48.

Billett, S. (2008). Learning throughout working life: A relational interdependence between personal and social agency. British Journal of Educational Studies, 56(1), 39-58.

Billett, S. (2008). Subjectivity, learning and work:Sources and legacies.  Vocations and Learning, 1(2), 149-171.

Billett, S., & Somerville, M. (2004). Transformational work: Identity and learning. Studies in Continuing Education, 26(2), 309-326.

Billett, S., & Pavlova, M. (2005). Learning through working life: Self and individuals’ agentic action. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 24(3), 195-211.

Practice based learning

Billett, S. (2009). Personal epistemologies, work and learning. Educational Research Review, 4, 210-219.

Billett, S. (2010). Learning through practice. In S. Billett (Ed.), Learning through practice:Models, traditions, orientations and approaches (pp. 1-20). Netherlands: Springer.

Billett, S., & Choy, S. (2013). Learning through work: emerging perspectives and new challenges. Journal of Workplace Learning, 25(4), 264 – 276. 

Cleland, J., Leaman, J., & Billett, S. (2014). Developing medical capabilities and dispositions through practice-based experiences. In C. Harteis, A. Rausch & J. Seifried (Eds.), Discourses on Professional Learning: On the Boundary between Learning and Working (pp.211-230). Drodrecht, Netherlands: Springer.

Mimetic learning

Billett, S. (2014). Mimetic learning at work. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.

The body in professional practice, learning and education - book overview

A book edited by Bill Green(Charles Sturt University) and Nick Hopwood (University of Technology, Sydney), published 2015 by Springer as part of the series on professional and practice-based learning. Read the ebook accessed over the last week through CPIT library.

15 chapters in 4 parts

Part 1 – Introductions

Chapters 1 and 2 by the editors provide a foundation with overviews of role of body in practice.

On professional practice as embodied, performed by material and corporeal beings, in specific space-time. Reasons for the topic and themes in the book discussed. Frameworks anchoring the studies and concepts introduced through the book are briefly discussed. Includes works from philosophers exampled by Aristotle, Witttgenstein, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, Schatzki; feminist literature of Butler and Grosz, sociology of the body with Shilling and Turner and the poststructuralist theories from Foucault, Derrida and others. The relevant contemporary work on ‘professions’ and ‘embodiment’ also reviewed briefly, providing good grounding for any future work.

Defines practice, rationalises the reasons for researching the topic. Recommends research methods including combination of ethnography and discourse analysis framed by actor-network theory or  cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT).

Origins and chapter summaries also provided in the first chapter.

In the second chapter, the theoretical underpinnings supporting the various discussions in the book are previewed, summarised and discussed. There is an overview and discussion of Schatzki’s conceptualisation of ‘being a body, having a body’, the instrumental body’ and relevance to practice. The aspects of performance and habituation are also considered.

Part 2 – thinking with the body in professional practice

Chapter 3 by Margaret Somerville and Karen Vella on ‘sustaining the change agent: Bringing the body into language in professional practice’.  A complex chapter whereby Feminist thought is used to study how organisational change affects professional practice. The PhD supervisor, Somerville and the Phd student, Vella, use an experience working with fabric, to assist in the unpacking of the nuances of embodied experiences.

Next a chapter by Nick Hopwood on ‘relational geometries of the body: doing ethnographic fieldwork’. This draws on personal ethnographies from the author and how ‘body geometries’ can be used to theorise what occurs to the ethnographer as he is steeped in fieldwork.

Chapter 5 with Mary C. Johnnson on ‘Terroir and time space: body rhythms in wine making’. An interesting chapter bringing together the findings on how bringing the body through embodiment with work and the practices of wine making, leads to the discovery of the body rhythms’ roles in learning and continuing practice.

Jo Anne Reid and Donna Mathewson Mitchel provide a chapter on ‘inhabiting the teaching body: portraits of teaching’. Provides good overviews of ‘embodiment’ through practice. How ‘teacherly’ action is adopted. The context of the article is pre-service teacher education and how to prepare beginning teachers to become in touch with their body as teacherly thinking and actions through interaction with material practices and arrangements occur. There is an examination of how expertise develops through experience, as novice teachers ‘fashion’ themselves to diagnose and act pedagogically.

Dianne Mulcahy writes another teaching themed chapter with ‘body matters: the critical contribution of affect in school classrooms and beyond’. The chapter follows on well from the previous. Seeks to break the cognitive bias of studying education to include trying to understand the how emotion impacts on how our bodies interact with ‘objects and spaces’. Uses actor-network theory as a means to unravel the interactions and envisages the many inter-relations between human and material objects as ‘assemblages’ as based on work by Deleuze and Guattari. Has good overview on the affect and bodies – summarising what bodies do and the kinds of practice thinking that informs doing.

Last chapter in this section is with Bill Green on ‘thinking bodies: practice theory, Deleuze and professional education’. Reviews the work of Deleuze and contributions to what it means to think of the body in a post-cartesian frame. Work of Schatzki’s also discussed. The chapter uses the example of how teachers teach reading, to provide frameworks from which the work of Deleuze and others may be understood. In particular, the perspective of the classroom as a ‘corporate body’ whereby the bodies of teacher and students align through activity to try to meet the activity’s goals.

Part 3 relates to the body in question in health and professional education and practice, perhaps of less relevance for the moment, but these chapters ‘show the way’ of how to integrate thinking about practice within specific practice contexts.

In chapter 9, Stephen Loftus writes on ‘embodiment in the practice and education of health professionals’. The chapter is narrative in nature, drawing on the author’s early experiences in medical practice. The need for empathy is a theme through the chapter and understanding the embodied body is one approach to better become a health professional.

The next chapter by Erika R. Katzman is on ‘embodied reflexivity: knowledge and the body in professional practice’. Brings together aspects of embodiment and reflection and how ‘embodied reflexivity leads to improved professional practice. Has overviews of each of the concepts, embodiment, reflection, embodied reflexivity, as understood or applied to a health context. The chapter revolves around the experiences of the author as an ‘attendant’ to a patient who is bedridden. How the author came to know her patient’s body and had to intervene when she saw changes in the patient’s bed sores but due to her position, had great difficulty obtaining assistance.

Then, a chapter on ‘embodied practise in dialysis care: on (para) professional work’ by Lara L Ellingston. The work of para-professionals working with dialysis patients is analysed through ethnographical methods  to foreground principles of embodiment.

Chapter 12 is on ‘(per)forming the practice(d) body: Gyneacological teaching associates in medical education’ by Jody Hall. Uses the experiences of gynaecological teaching associates (GTAs) to unravel the complex processes underlying how they assist medical students to learn how to perform pelvic examinations by allowing students to use them as patients. The author is a GTA and uses her ‘insider’ eyes to bring forth the stories of GTAs, their challenges.

The next chapter focuses on ‘the (de)fragmented body in nursing education’ by Sandra DeLuca, Pat Bethune-Davies and Janice Elliot. Explores how the use of simulations / virtual learning experiences used to educate nursing students, may lead to disembodiment.

Last chapter in section 3 is with Sally Denshire who writes on ‘looking like an occupational therapist: (re)presentations of her comportment within autoethnographical tales’. An example of using autoethnography to unpack the many socio-material aspects of occupational therapy.

The last section and chapter provides concluding reflections from Elizabeth Anne Kinsella on ‘embodied knowledge: towards a corporeal turn in professional practice, research and education’. The rationalisation for the need to widen perspectives on understanding practice is the main focus of this chapter. Not only the socio-material but also potentially difficult aspects (emotional or social taboos etc.) are brought to attention through the various research approaches sympathetic to examining emotions, embodiment etc.

Overall, a good compilation of contemporary work on practice / embodied practice and in consequence, the flow on impacts on embodied thinking, reflection etc. Each chapter takes a slightly different slant on the topic. The work of Schatzki crops up often along with Deleuze, Foucault, Heidigger and Meleau-Ponty, signalling the need for me to get into more reading to get my head around the various perspectives. 

Importance of practice

Via various sources, a collection of links on the importance of practice. Many come from the literature and blogs of musical training and musicians. 

Here is a post from a sports psychologist, Kageyama, applying the learning of sports to the learning of music - providing a summary of how top musicians practice differently from others.

Another post from another musician on how many hours are optimum for practice. Plus another one here with perspectives from a cellist.

The business take on deliberate practice and expertise, as per learning from chess, is summarised in this blog.

So, still some work to do in contextualising the literature for application to trades learning. The challenge with trades work is its variability and complexity. For instance, in the craft I am most familiar with, baking and pastry cooking. There are tasks which require quite a bit of effort and time to master. Examples are the use of piping bags, moulding of bread and 'hand dropping' fillings and biscuit (cookie) dough. Then there is the learning required to perform tasks with fluidity and 'least effort' like loading /unloading ovens or tray racks, lining pastry tins, cutting out pastry or dough. The key is perhaps to identity tasks requiring aspects of deliberate practice and work towards the deliberate practice skills being applied across all other work tasks. Something to mull over for the next couple of weeks.

Technology-enhanced professional learning - book overview

An brief overview of ' Technology-enhanced professional learning: Processes, practices and tools edited by Allison Littlejohn and Anoush Margaryan and published 2014 by Routledge.

16 chapters including introduction and commentary on each of the 3 sections – work practices, learning processes and digital technologies.

Relevant chapters to current project surface tablet work now summarised.

1)      The introduction by the two editors lays out the concept of technology-enhanced professional learning (TEPL). The rational for the book (i.e. there is very little research in the area of TEPL) is presented. TEPL has influences from ‘new’ work practices (organisational learning, distributed work), learning processes (expansive learning, networked learning, development of expertise, mimetic learning) and technologies that can be leveraged to enhance TEPL (semantic web, learning analytics, collaborative technologies, simulations and games). Brief overview of each of the chapters is also provided.

Section 1 – work practices has 4 chapters.

2)      Julie Clow writes on ‘work practices to support continuous organisational learning’. The historical and social movement of work from craft to manufacturing to ‘knowledge’ work is summarised. Current work requires the creation of rapid learning cycles for workers to learn and move on to next project. Workers are now required to ask questions, think big, work cooperative on complex problems in ever evolving teams. Learning and development within organisations now need to keep up with the pace of change. Crowd sourcing now used within and outside organisation to bring in training / development expertise as and when required. In-house programmes to share organisational learning also now a requirement, an example is the use by Google engineers of Snippets, to publish weekly updates of progress and learning on various projects.

3)      ‘Distributed work: working and learning at a distance’ by Matthew J. Bietz covers the move by organisations towards employing people, working on collaborative projects, who are separated geographically or temporally. Challenges include not only distance effects exampled by lack of ‘water cooler type serendipitous discussions’ but also the need to help employees work in diverse social and cultural contexts. Learning and development for distributed work is challenged to assist workers in accessing the organisations’ ‘tacit’ knowledge and meeting diversity of learning needs.

4)      The relatively new form of work organisation ‘crowd work and collective learning’ is discussed by Jeffrey V. Nickerson. Here, large numbers of usually unconnected people are brought together to complete objective/s. Relationships between worker and organisation may be fleeting and workers find it difficult to learn new skills when they are focused on specialised tasks. Crowd work sourcing sites (Amazon’s Mechanical Turk) and crowd work practices are introduced and discussed. Future direction includes possibility of moving crowd work from individuals on to groups, increasing the complexity of managing organisational TEPL expectations and goals for crowd sourced workers.

5)      A commentary on the three chapters on work practice is provided by Sebastian Fiedler. The emergence of ‘new forms’ of organisational work structures require review of existing ways workplace learning and development are enacted. This chapter evaluates each of the chapters in the section. The caution is not to apply generic approaches to TEPL but to study each context and develop appropriate TEPL responses.

Section 2 has 5 chapters on learning processes

6)      ‘new forms of transformative agency’ by Ritva Engestrom covers the contribution of cultural-historical activity theory (CHATs) on understanding work and learning at work. The chapter provides a good summary of CHATs. A Finnish case study is provided as an example and the model derived is explained.

7)      Chapter on ‘expertise development through schooling and work’ by Henry Boshuizen and Margje van de Wiel summarises studies on expertise development. An overview of the development of expertise is provided with emphasis on deliberate practice and self-regulated learning and performance.

8)      Stephen Billett’s chapter covers ‘mimetic learning in the circumstances of professional learning’. I have summarised this chapter in an earlier blog.

9)      ‘Networked professional learning’ is presented by Peter Sloep. Two fictitious companies are used to describe various aspects of networked learning. Then, there is discussion of social networking tools (Linkedin, mendeley, research gate) plus usual suspects Twitter, Scoop.it, Storify, delicious, google docs etc. and customised tools developed by the author – ASA (automous tutor locator) and COCOON (a group assembly instrument).

10)   The final chapter in section 2, by Terje Valjataga and Sebastian Fiedler is a commentary on ‘learning processes’ chapters. The diversity of the 4 chapters is acknowledged and each chapter is critiqued in relation to the others. Again, the recommendation is that TEPL needs further study to bring sense into how to best deploy TEPL across diverse sectors with complex learning processes.

The last section digital technologies has 5 chapters and is perhaps the weakest in the book as some are case studies and others based on preliminary studies. This could be due to the emergent nature of TPEL and the volume of empirical work still required to identify workable processes and approaches.

11)   ‘Orchestrating collaboration and community technologies for individuals and organisational learning’ by Tobias Ley, Kairit Tammets and Stephenie Lindstaedt. Communities of practice model used to develop organisation learning systems to encourage collaboration within and across and beyond organisations. Introduces the internal organisation APOSLDE system which generates a top down strategy. The system generates ‘individualised’ or customised learning programmes, based on individual’s expertise level to learn processes required to complete their work tasks. An ‘external’ bottom up cross-organisational system intelLEO also described. Both compared and reviewed.

12)   A chapter on the ‘social sematic web and workplace learning’ by Melody Siadaty, Jelena Jovanovic and Dragon Gasevic provides introduction to this form of learning technology.the pedagogical framing strategy is discussed along with affordances and limitations within workplace learning contexts for leveraging the social sematic web.

13)   ‘Learning analytics and their application in TPEL’ is by Bettina Berendt, Riina Vuorikari, Allison Littlejohn and Anoush Margaryan. Defines different ways learning analytics assist the TPEL process and provides a case study to illustrate concepts. A good introductory chapter to learning analytics.

14)   Heide Lukosh, Allison Littlejohn and Anoush Margaryan write on ‘simulation games for workplace learning’. Provides overview of state of play in using simulation games to assist workplace learning and 2 case studies used to example utilisation.

15)   A commentary on the 4 chapters in the digital technologies section written by Colin Milligan. Identifies commonalities within the 4 chapters in this section. These are: training is now more difficult and it does not suit needs of modern worker; learning is learner-led (perhaps organisational-led as well); tools used are personal and social; and technology increasingly links peoples’ work and learning.

The concluding chapter by the editors discusses the challenges and future directions of TEPL.

The book provides a good overview of new organisational practices and efforts to develop TEPL appropriate for the diverse contexts. Many questions are raised and some suggestions to assist are discussed and critiqued. As always, food for thought.

Keynote on 'learning through practice' - Professor Stephen Billett

Came across this presentation on youtube, uploaded October 2012. Professor Stephen Billett's keynote at a seminar at the University of Paderborn in Germany for their Department of Wirtschaftspädagogik (Centre for Vocational Education and Training).

The presentation is titled 'Towards an account of learning through practice: Traditions, practices and potentials' with some overlap with keynote at AVETRA this year. However, a few important and relevant points to note.

The presentation begins with brief overview of the historical record on learning at work and through practice.

Billett argues for the need to identify opportunities for learning to take place – the pedagogically rich experiences – eg. nurses’ ‘hand-over’. If we study the principles of what makes this activity high learning and  how it is afforded, then there may be some transfer of these principles to other activities.

A note that personal epistemologies also important -  learners' agency, based on their knowing, beliefs and acts they use (listen, engage, deliberate practice)

Practical learning takes place through imitation (mimesis), observations, ontogenetic ritualization, active engagement and construction (‘stealing’ apprehending knowledge). Again learner needs to assent to wanting to become and be ready to capitalise on learning opportunities.

 Recommends – need for science of practice that  goes beyond educational science. Learning through practice premises made accessible by drawing on a range of explanations, dimensions of curriculum, pedagogy and personal epistemology. Includes need to also recognise particular cultural, societal and situational factors. 

Therefore the dimensions of personal and social interact and cannot be easily separated. Practice-based learning, especially when it takes place in the workplace, will always be complex. Individual workplace contexts add to the difficulty with imposing a 'one size fits all' curriculum. Individuals and importantly the workplace need to structure opportunities for learning that fits into the training needs of the organisation while still ensuring individuals affordances are availed.  

Google glasses - first reviews

Early this year, Google put out a call for early adopters, open only topeople residing in the US of A. These users are now just receiving their google glasses andthe blogosphere and tech websites have started to post reviews and firstimpressions. For instance, engadget features a day by day user's experience along with one from techcrunch, seroundtable, Tim O'Reilley, and one on youtube.

Comprehensive post on endgadget reviewing features and usage.

myscienceacademy features a cnet report featuring pros and cons and endgadget featured the New York Times app, optimised to run on Glasses.

Detractors also abound with examples from the UKs Telegraph and mashable. Mainly revolving around issues of privacy and how having technology so easily accessible might change the way we think.

Educational use provided on emergingtech include learning new languages, creating presentations, quick websearching, building portfolio, and the technology leading to news courses, skills and careers.

From our work on point of view classes, the advantages of google glasses is their continuous connectivity and ability to access the web. A disadvantage is the high cost – 6-7  times the cost of POV glasses we are currentlyworking with.

So, will await the launch of Google glasses to the general public, although it might be 2015 before we are able to purchase in NZ. 

Bodies of knowledge - report summary

Bodies of Knowledge; how the learning sciences could transform practical and

vocational education (2010). London: Edge Foundation

Claxton, G., Lucas, B., & Webster, R.

This report is a precursor to another published at the end of December on vocational pedagogy - blog entry next week. It is a summary of  recent work and written for educational practitioners and policy makers in all education sectors.  For the school sector to better prepare children for the future world of work and for the further and higher education sectors to change current approaches to vocational education.

The report lays out the argument that learning practical skills and the curriculum of vocational education are no less demanding or complex than ‘academic’ disciplines. They summarise recent research in cognitive sciences, especially in the area of embodied cognition / embodiment (Johnson's book summary) and other ways of knowing to argue the following:

• Doing comes before seeing and thinking
• The body and the mind are closely interlinked
• Our bodies are cleverer that we thought
• Physical movement helps thinking
• Much thinking is not conscious

Therefore, practical and academic learning are much more similar that previously theorised.

The myths surrounding practical and vocational education include: practical learning as being cognitively simple, involves lower order thinking and is second rate; that clever people grow out of practical learning; understanding has to happen before learning occurs; clever people don’t get their hands dirty or to work with their hands; practical learning is only for the less ‘able.

Compares the learning required to become glass blowers, motorcycle mechanic and scholar to be similar in complexities but with different focuses. However, all require the learning of ways of doing and approaching tasks which have commonalities. They call these ‘presence of mind’ and argue the importance of schooling in helping young people learn these important generic skills.  “it is only a very narrow view of intelligence that cabinet ministers are in a sense ‘brighter’ than cabinet makers”

The habits of mind – investigation, experimentation, reasoning and imagination along with frames of mind – curiosity, determination, resourcefulness, sociability, reflection and wisdom, all contribute to the development of ‘presence of mind’.  These are summarised in the 4-6-1 model. 4 habits and 6 frames lead to presence of mind.

The last chapter (chapter 5) also brings in the ‘social contribution’ to learning as the 4-6-1 model focuses on individual learners. Has a good overview of ‘situated learning’ summarising and updating Lave & Wenger’s work. Combines the 4-6-1 model with aspects of activity theory (leading to socio-materialism / sociomaterial approach) to extend understanding on the context of where learning occurs. Of note is a comment on how the authors have not come across work on “how talk between apprentices and those engaged on vocational learning can best be facilitated” – perhaps some of our work on peer feedback  and peer learning is a beginning contribution. Various approaches to teaching and learning are also discussed with regards to relevance to the 4-6-1 model and vocational education.

Footnotes are provided on the side of pages, providing for a few articles / books to follow up. References provide a comprehensive list of contemporary cognitive learning scholarship.

Practice based education summit Sydney 2012 April – checking out web archive

Was unable to be at the practice-based education (PBE)summit, held in Sydney in early April this year. An Ako Aotearoa meeting at the end of September and touching base with one of the presenters at the summit, Dr. Dale Sheehan, reminded me to check through the summit archives. I now also see that presentations have been uploaded to youtube.

Presentations of interest are from the following with powerpoints and videos of each presentation available:

Professor Stephen Billett on Learning through practice: Origins, practices and potentials which contains aspects from his book on Vocational learning as summarise in recent blog.

Professor David Boud on the practice of practice-based education.

Professor Joy Higgs presented on pedagogies relevant to practice based education

Dr. Dave Sheehan talked about her projects around the education and training of doctors with PBE and the next generation of general practitioners.

The 2013 summit website also now up and the main Education for Practice Institute has pertinent information   and useful resources.

Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, theory and practice

Book edited by A.M. Williams and N. Hodges (2004) and published by Routledge.  There is now a 2012 version on google books with different content chapters which I have ordered for the library.

Have mentioned the 2004 book in a previous blog but while away last week and through a wet public holiday day on Monday, had time to do a concentrated study of relevant chapters. Much of the research is relevant to trades based skill learning but the information needs to be unpacked and contextualised for vocational educators.  So this post is a consolidation of main ideas from relevant chapters as pertinent to vocational education.

The book has 19 chapters with the first chapter covering ‘the historical perspective on skill acquisition’ by J.J. Summers. The other chapters are organised into three sections. 9 chapters in part 1 on information processing perspectives, 5 chapters in part 2 focused on the expertise approach and 4 chapters in part 3 covering ecological / dynamic systems approaches.

Summarises of relevant chapters follow.

Chapter 1 ‘the historical perspective on skill acquisition’ by J.J. Summers

This chapter provides a good overview of the work undertaken since the 1800s on skill learning.  There is a summary of the work undertaken in experimental psychology, still useful today. In particular, foundational understanding of concepts like ‘learning curves’, ‘plateaus’, ‘transfer of learning’, ‘law of effect’, ‘ knowledge of results (KR)’ , ‘open / closed loop learning’ etc.  Of note is the need to distinguish between the learning of skills under automatic control and activities demanding high levels of concentration and the understanding that motor skills also required the acquiring of cognitive skills. Basically a move from behaviourist models to information processing models to the present melding of motor skill learning / cognitive processing with contextual practice called the ecological/dynamical systems framework.

Second chapter -  Contextual interference by T.D. Lee and D.A. Simon confirms that ‘practice makes perfect’ helps with skill learning but the phrase ‘perfect practice makes perfect’ does not. The chapter uses studies completed by Shea and Morgan (1979) on structuring practice, either in blocks of similar activity, or with practice types randomly distributed. Blocked practice led to rapid performance improvement with random practice leading to slower skill acquisition. However, the participants in the random group learnt the skill better. So acquisition is better with blocked practice but learning is enhanced with a random acquisition schedule.

Chapter 3 - The utilisation of visual feedback in the acquisition of motor skills by M.A. Khan and I.M. Franks. A relevant chapter for vocational education. Has a good overview of the need to learn through practicing under ‘real’ situations i.e. the specificity of practice. Direct feedback- actual views of arms/legs etc. (on-line) may not be possible in the execution of some skills. Indirect feedback (offline) through the awareness of body position (proprioception) may be required. However, continued feedback via external means (oral from coaches or peers, of learners’ own visual) may not always be effective as knowledge of results (KR) associations need to be interconnected with non-visual aspects. So, in learning how to complete skilled tasks, there needs to be careful consideration of what sort of oral and peer feedback will be useful. Coaches and teachers also have to be aware of the sorts of internal feedback mechanisms (body positions, muscle tension etc.) learners will be feeling and then work out how and when to provide instruction about these mechanisms.

Chapter 4 -  One trial motor learning by J. Dickinson, D. Weeks, B. Randall and D. Goodman. One trial refers to how people struggle to learn a difficult skill and then suddenly, ‘get it’. Common examples include riding a bike or learning how to ski. In vocational education, my observations of welding reveal that learning welding might also fit into this category of motor learning. At one of my vocational education workshops, one of the tutors in a manufacturing trade shared with the group, his struggles to learn welding skills and it only came right when he realised he had to control his breathing in order to complete welding projects.  In this chapter, acquisition theories and descriptions of relevance are overviewed. The chapter reports on several studies of how one-trial may occur. The chapter concludes on the difficulties in establishing how people get to the ‘aha’ moment when various stepped (scaffolded) learning / practice regimes suddenly coalesce and the learner ‘gets it’.  This is due to the various approaches individuals take towards attaining learning goals. Therefore, coaches and instructors being able to deploy a range of learning strategies and who have the empathetic understanding of learners to be able to suggest the best matched strategy may be a way forward with one trial learning / complex motor skills requiring high levels of spatial / temporal coordination.

Chapter 6 - Decision training : cognitive strategies for enhancing motor performance by J.A. Vickers, M Reeves, K.L. Chambers and S. Martell. The chapter reports on a method to encourage the interconnections between cognitive and physical learning of skills by athletes. Of note is the role of coaches to helping the process. The chapter discusses the factors that contribute to effective coaching and the need for coaching training to move on from ‘learning by observation’ of experienced coaches. The three step decision training process – decisions, triggers and tools – is introduced as a method to improve coaching.  Coaches need to help sports people learn how to make better decisions based on KR. Tools for improving performance include variable practice, random practice, bandwidth feedback, questioning, video feedback, hard-first instruction and modelling.

Chapter 7 - Understanding the role of augmented feedback: the good, the bad and the ugly with G. Wulf and C.H. Shea. Centred around the Knowledge of Results (KR) defined as feedback provided to the learner after completion of skill activity. Summarises advantages and disadvantages of KR along with a large number of studies on various aspects of deployment of KR  - reduced KR frequency, constant practice, variable practice, delay KR and error estimation, bandwidth of KR. Plus KR effect on learning complex skills and aspects of feedback and attentional focus. Some consolidation with KR playing important role in guiding performance towards the required standard; providing KR at every trial results in dependence on external KR and also blocks process for attaining intrinsic information plus results in increased variability in responses.  So need for KR to be carefully targeted and learner still has to learn and be responsive to own KR.

Chapter 8 - Instructions, demonstrations and the learning process: creating and constraining movement options by N.J. Hodges and I.M. Franks. A very relevant chapter deconstructing the many myths about practical skills learning with an emphasis on the provision of verbal or written instructions that are apart from or part of demonstrations. Two main sections to the chapter. First section on information- processing accounts of skill acquisition. Changes in information processing demands as skill increases is covered – novices need to attend more at initial practice and as skill becomes ‘automated’ less attention is required. In order to decrease the high number of demands when first learning a skill, visual (pictures, watching demonstration) or verbal cues may assist to simply the learning content.  In effect, priming the novice with cognitive, declarative type input before structured, on-going and repetitive practice lessens the information processing demands to the final automatic, procedural, non-verbal stage. As learning progresses, error detection and correction mechanisms along with reference-of-correctness points need to be identified and the learning assisted to learn these. The second section in the chapter discusses learning as a dynamic process dictated by constraints including coordination dynamics. To offset the constraints, recommendations are to encourage learning of movements through movement variability and being mindful of complexity of tasks (for instance ambidextrous activities) which might benefit from assisting learners to ‘decouple’ – learn skill from scratch and not as an extension of pre-existing but slightly different skill; be attuned to the levels of control for different parts of the sensori-motor system (posture, then repetitive locomotion than targeted purposeful movement); accessibility to knowledge infers that not all learners are able to learn by observation – especially of complex skills (see chapter on one trial); and helping learners to identify the ‘end points’ of a sequence of movements sometimes helps.

Chapter 9 - Observational learning: is it time we took another look? By R.R. Horn and M. Williams. Begins with a short overview of the concepts of imitation and observational learning defining terms like matched-dependent behaviour, copying, emulation and echokinesis. Then summarises cognitive approaches and Bandura’s social cognitive theory as one that is helpful  - attentional, retentional, production and motivation processes. Then critiques social cognitive theory to lead into discussion on an ecological alternative

Chapter 11 - Deliberate practice and expert performance: defining the path of excellence with P. Ward, N. J. Hodges, A.M Williams and J.L. Starkes. This chapter provides an overview of the theory of deliberate practice and includes some critical analysis along with outstanding issues not addressed by the theory. These issues include developmental (pre-peak practice and past performance peaks) and methodical (reliability and validity of data) issues. Recommendations on how these issues may be addressed through sports –based research are proposed. A good chapter to balance the accepted tenets of the deliberate practice theory.

Chapter 14 - From novice to expert performance: memory, attention and the control of complex sensori-motor skills with S.L. Beilock and T.H. Carr. Begins with an overview of theories of skill acquisition and the role of memory  and attention in acquiring skills. Uses studies in golf to illustrate concepts. Of importance is the discussion on ‘choking under pressure’ and reasons this occurs.

Chapter 15 - perceptual and cognitive expertise in sport: Implications for skill acquisition and performance enhancement with A.M. Williams, P. Ward and N.J. Smeeton. Summarise key findings in perceptual / cognitive expertise including pattern recognition, advance cue usage, visual search behaviour, situational probabilities and maturation and practice. Experts tend to have developed through specific practice, the ability to look for contextual clues that novices are unaware of. How perceptual / cognitive skills can be developed is then introduced with recommendations for instruction. Of interest is the discussion on when and how to use implicit or explicit learning strategies.  Finds that video simulation and appropriate instruction to important performance cues  and feedback can be helpful.

Chapter 16 - the evolution of coordination during skill acquisition: the dynamic systems approach by R. Huys, A. Daffershofer and P.J. Beek. The chapter is an introduction to the newer theories underpinned by dynamic systems which views learning as fluid and dependent on a wide range of difficult to pin down variables. A proposal is that learning is to do with changes in the way we are able to coordinate a range of physical and mental schema (coordinative flexibility). A range of theories that are framed by dynamic systems are overviewed and discussed.

Chapter 17 - perceptual learning is mastering perceptual degrees of freedom by G.J.P. Savelsbergh, J. Van der Kamp, R.R.D. Oudejans and M.A. Scott. An extension of one of the theories introduced in the previous chapter . ‘Perceptual degrees of freedom’ is influenced by the writings of Bernstein on motor coordination – including stages of freezing, freeing and exploiting. Practical applications in through discussions on soccer and basketball are provided to example the concepts. Recommends that firstly, learning a skill should have few variables and be situated in practice. After basic skills are attained, freeing and exploitation phrases may be introduced with more variable conditions to widen skill repertoire. 

Motor control and skill development in vocational education

As a continuation to last week’s blog, contributions from the field of sports psychology, dance pedagogy and the training of surgeons are summarised with relevance to the learning of trade 'motor' skills.


Learning a trade requires the acquisition of a range of motor skills. However, the literature is sparse when it comes to vocational trade skills learning and teaching. Each of the following disciplines studies motor skill learning from slightly different angles.

In sports psychology, behaviourists and cognitivists theories are brought together to study how to improve sports performance. For instance, a continuum of skill learning includes the cognitive, associative and autonomous phrases (Christina & Corcos, 1988; Fitts & Poster, 1967) with recommendations on whole vs part practice. Specific terms of relevance include proprioception – the sense of head, trunk and limb movement and exteroceptive – vision and hearing. Books in CPIT library include 'Motor control, learning and development' by Otley and Astill (2008); and 'Applied sport psychology: personal growth to peak performance' edited by J.M. Williams (2010).

From dance pedagogy we have an example from the book ‘Meaning in motion’ by Jane Desmond (2003) Here there is the linking of motor skills development with roots in behaviourist learning theories to regarding the ‘body, tool use and cognition’ bringing together aspects of embodiment, identity, how the brain represents and make connections between the many sensory inputs.

Medical education includes many speciality areas requiring the learning of practical skills. Here is an example on teaching surgical skills by Reznick & MacRae (2006). The paper advocates the use of simulations to assist medical students to learn and deliberately practice the mechanics of the skill before they have to use subsets and variants of these skills in an actual operating theatre.

Therefore, there is a specific language from psychology, to describe various aspects of motor control and skills learning and examples from other disciplines studying, describing and some advocating strategies for application to learning and teaching. Next step for me is to to think through the interconnections, interfaces and synergies between the various approaches to understanding learning how to become a trade worker.

Book on learning through practice

Another book from the professional and practice-based learning (Springer publishers) has arrived in the library. This one on ‘Learning through practice: Models, traditions, orientations and approaches’ edited by Professor Stephen Billett. With short preview on Google books


Much of the book is of relevance, so here is a brief summary of each pertinent chapter.

The first chapter, ‘learning though practice’ sets the scene by providing the rationale for the book, including the growing interest in practice-based learning and the purposes of learning through practice. Then the conceptual premises for learning through practice are set out by way of summarising the next six chapters and then a summary of the following chapters as instances/examples of practice. Overall, a good overview is provided to set the scene and provide the theoretical foundations for the following chapters.

Chapter 2 by Wolff-Michael Roth is on ‘learning in praxis and learning for praxis’. Using fish culture as an example, this chapter discusses the large separation between what is taught and tested at school and the competencies learnt and practiced at work. Of importance is the exploration of learning by implicit (tacit) and explicit modes. There is also a good overview of the praxis and theory from historical and phenomenological perspectives at the beginning of the chapter.

Michael Eraut writes on ‘knowledge, working practices and learning’ in chapter 3. This chapter is a good summary of Eraut’s work on lifelong learning. His premise is that through life, we undergo a series of learning trajectories. These trajectories occur through engagement in work and life. Access to learning depends on type of work etc. and personal, situational and interpersonal influences have an impact on what, how and how much learning occurs.

Stephen Billet’s chapter ‘ the practices of learning through occupations’ provides a historical and conceptual account of learning and discusses the nature and effectiveness of learning for occupations through practice. Of interest are the historical accounts and how, for much of humankind’s history, occupational learning has been largely based in workplace environments, often through apprenticeship type processes. Of note is the need to recognise the complexity, demands and often difficult to learn knowledge that characterises workplace learning. An overview of his concept of affordances and engagement in work also provided.

Chapter 6 is by Gloria Dall’Alba and Jorgen Sandberg on ‘learning through and about practice: a lifeworld perspective’. Argues that approaches to practice-based learning tend to overlook the ontological dimensions that are central to learning. So that learning emphasises skills, knowledge etc, to be learnt but not on how learners are becoming and what the processes of becoming involve. Propose the ‘ways of being’ needs to be used to direct teaching/learning.

David Guile’s chapter ‘developing vocational practice and social capital in the jewellery sector: a model of practice-based learning’ uses a workplace scheme to explore concepts of practice based learning and occupational competency. Cultural-historical activity theory is used to examine the various influences on work placement.

Laurent Fillietaz provides examples from apprenticeship training on aspects of ‘guidance as an interactional accomplishment’. Of note is the use of video and discourse analysis methods to study the learning of apprentices within workplaces. In this chapter, four categories of guidance are proposed. These are spontaneous, requested, distributed and denied. Provides a good framework to explore inter-relational aspects of workplace learning.

Chapter 12 by Helen Worthen and Mark Berchman is on “apprenticeships: what happens in on the job training’ set in an American context. The main discussion in the chapter is the tension between production targets and workplace learning needs.

Several other chapters also need to be studied! But the above are the ones most applicable to current projects.