Digitally enabling 'learning by doing' - Chinese version

 My book ' Digitally enabling 'learning by doing' in vocational education, has now been translated into Chinese and accessible through the Chinese publishers website.

The translators have worked hard and even the figures have been translated. Citations and references remain in English. 

The original book was published in 2011 as a Springer brief and has had wide readership and a sprinkling of citations :) 

The principles and concepts in the book arose from our work as we grappled with shifting the 'hands on' learning aspects of vocational education into 'distance education' across the CoVID years. One major pedagogical approach is that we must not only 'push' information out to our learners, but also 'pull' evidence of their learning from them to establish 'deliberate practice'. Both the 'push' and 'pull' resources can then be used in synchronous learning sessions to 'connect the dots', thereby encouraging and supporting both deliberate practice and reflective learning.

Kick off presentation #6 - Arun Pradhan on learning

Sue McBain, team lead for the educational development team introduced Arun Pradhan.

Used a feedback mechanism – thumbs up and thumbs down to provide feedback on the presentation. Used menti.com to present an interactive session.

Began with rate the importance of – to find out what topic is on top.

Introduced a reality check with regards to change. Covid being one challenge of many.

Trends include continued impact of digital and pervasive data; rise of personalised customer experience, refocus on human connection and underlying needs, rise of agility and drive to innovate, reinvent & disrupt,  FAST.

Proposed the overriding questions as ‘how do we survive the robot apocalypse’!

Moved on to discussion the educators’ dilemma. What are the most important skills moving forward. Robots are better are info recall and recording, algorithms / calculations, rule based problem solving, rote/repetitive tasks, physically demanding work.

Humans better had learning to learn and unlearn, empathy, problem solving and critical thinking, collaboration and communication and digital fluency/data intelligence.

Used T shaped skills as the visual – broad soft and cross-functional expertise and deep expertise. Siloed expert has deep expertise and superficial generalist have (or need to have) the broad soft skills. However, T-shaped people have both.

Compared careers in the past (front loading and then predictable career) and now/future (optional front loading and then continuous learning to have adaptive work.

Suggested education as modular solutions, credentialing and industry partnerships, micro-learning in the workflow, position to ‘value add’, flexible and adaptive curriculum and focus on learning how to learn.

Discussed briefly the many myths about learning and introduced alternative – classic, millennial/right=brained/existentialist/ gangnam style learners – which again are myths. Debunked learning styles and the need to be more critical about how learning is understood.

Encouraged the need to understand how to help learning by unlocking blocks to behaviour. Attributes and dispositions are a key rather than skills and knowledge.

Proposed knowledge as being facts and info and mental approaches (assumptions, generalisations and concepts). Interleaved study across several topics and spaced study (study, test, test, test) more effective.

Recommends the minimisation of cognitive load (less content) augment facts and info, used spaced retrieval if facts and info require memorisation and use concepts and mental models (infographics, stories, metaphors).

Therefore, learn less facts but learn more mental models. Important to construct a ‘latticework of mental models’ (Charles Munger) or an expanded cognitive toolkit.  Provided a list of mental models including pareto principle, sunk cost, opportunity costs, ockams razor, A/B testing, return on failure, confirmation bias, scientific method, deliberate practice, Feynman technique, habit forming, EAST nurdge, inversion, circle of competence etc.

Skills development based on deliberate practice (Ericsson) the way to go. Not just 10,000 hours of doing but the ability to act on feedback and to constantly improve. 

Mindset and motivation requires helping learners finding out -what is in it for me  and the need to foster a growth mindset (Dweck).

Environments to support continuous learning also required.

Promoted the application of design thinking for learning design – starting with empathy, define, ideate, prototype, test and refine.

Shared how blended experiences can be designed through engaging the learner, priming with information, applying, connecting, reflecting and embedding. Advocated blended whould be about asynchronous vs synchronous, collaborative vs independent and formal vs experiential.

Good overview of the state of the play on learning from a corporate point of view with a synthesis of many of the current concepts on learning brought together and applied to the challenges of the future of learning. 

Peak: Secrets from the science of expertise - book overview

This is a layperson's book on deliberate practice. The book - Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise is by Anders Ericsson and Robert Pool, published in 2017.

The more scholarly book - development of professional expertise - see summary on this blog here, makes for more thorough discussion and information.

However, for people wanting a quick overview of deliberate practice, and its application to daily life, the book Peak provides good introduction and overview. The book has 10 chapters, each building on the other.

The book begins with 3 chapters to introduce the concepts of deliberate practice. Then, follow two chapters on application (deliberate practice on the job and in everyday life). There is then a chapter on 'the road to extraordinary', summarising much of the work on understanding expertise and arguing that it is deliberate practice which is the key to expert performance. The next chapter then discusses the conundrum of 'natural talent', what is its role in feeding into expertise. The last chapter looks into 'where do we go from here', providing for suggestions for further research into the development of expertise. 

There are 30 pages of notes for those who are keen to follow up more on the topic.

A related article - how to make your kid good at everything - provides more overview of the book's contents. The summation in the article is 'it is not how much practice, but how you do it' which is the important message from the book.

As always, one concept, can only go so far to explain the complexities of human learning. Critique of the concept of deliberate practice was summarised on this blog a few years ago.

Deliberate practice - some critiques

Ericsson’s work on deliberate practice is cited often in the vocational education literature, here is link to one of his papers. Concepts of deliberate practice have been popularised through popular literature by Gladwell’s book, Outliers.

However, there are critiques to the concepts inherent in deliberate practice as per this article from open colleges. Notably, that the research used to frame deliberate practice has been carried out with areas of skill learning which are relatively narrow. For example, the studies on expertise with chess players and the learning of musical instruments.

Learning any trade requires a wide range of skill sets, so there is difficulty in generalising all the recommendations and findings across to learning occupational skills. However, deliberate practice does provide for one process to explain the learning of a discrete set of skill.

Critiques include the following: From msu research - takes the nature vs nurture dichotomy and argues for the mainly nature with some nurture stance. An academic article by  Hamrick and others propose the need to study the deliberate practice process more deeply.

So still some way to go with regards to clarifying how we actually go about learning skills through practice. 

Importance of practice

Via various sources, a collection of links on the importance of practice. Many come from the literature and blogs of musical training and musicians. 

Here is a post from a sports psychologist, Kageyama, applying the learning of sports to the learning of music - providing a summary of how top musicians practice differently from others.

Another post from another musician on how many hours are optimum for practice. Plus another one here with perspectives from a cellist.

The business take on deliberate practice and expertise, as per learning from chess, is summarised in this blog.

So, still some work to do in contextualising the literature for application to trades learning. The challenge with trades work is its variability and complexity. For instance, in the craft I am most familiar with, baking and pastry cooking. There are tasks which require quite a bit of effort and time to master. Examples are the use of piping bags, moulding of bread and 'hand dropping' fillings and biscuit (cookie) dough. Then there is the learning required to perform tasks with fluidity and 'least effort' like loading /unloading ovens or tray racks, lining pastry tins, cutting out pastry or dough. The key is perhaps to identity tasks requiring aspects of deliberate practice and work towards the deliberate practice skills being applied across all other work tasks. Something to mull over for the next couple of weeks.

Discourses on Professional Learning: On the boundary of learning and work - chapter summaries

Discourses on Professional Learning: On the boundary between learning and working.

Edited by C. Harteis, A. Rausch and J. Seifried (2014) and published by Springer. Hardcopy in CPIT library.

The book has introductory and concluding chapters, 15 chapters collected into 3 parts. Below, summaries of chapters relevant to my current work and research.

Introduction by the editors

Part 1 – Analytical perspectives – learning in work context - has 6 chapters.

Chapter 2 – Agentic behaviour at work: crafting learning experiences by M. Goller and S. Billett. This chapter provides a rare critique to the ‘deliberate practice’ concept. Work is held to be complex, contextualised to individual workplaces, open to distinct socio-cultural and socio-material challenges and reliant on individual’s intrinsic motivation. Precepts of deliberate practice have been derived from studies of expertise founded in narrowly prescribed fields (i.e playing chess, sports, music) comprising small number of well-defined activities. Whereas all work is undertaken in difficult to define environments, structured to allow for organisational objectives (i.e. same occupation but different focuses – e.g. chef in hospital, café, fine-dining restaurant, fast foot etc.). Individual’s agency is held to be significant in how workplace learning progresses.

Chapter 5 with S. Billett on the topic ‘mediating learning at work: personal mediations of social and brute factors. As with chapter 2, the emphasis is on individuals being agentic in their approaches to workplace learning. Important to focus on socio-cultural and socio-material (the inter-psychological processes) but and how individuals learning (the intra-psychological processes). However, it is the ways in which inter and intra psychological processes inter-relate that are important. In particular, how individuals deploy intra-psychological processes to deal with the world around them.

Chapter 6 on ‘error climate and how individuals deal with errors in the workplace’ by A. Baumgartner and J. Seifried. An interesting study with apprentices in the hotel and restaurant industry. The importance of ‘error climate’ is introduced to explain how in some circumstances, learning through making mistakes can be useful contributors to workplace learning, and how in other workplaces, making mistakes is unsupported and thus seen to be impediments to progress. So, the workplace and worker attitudes to error are contributing factors.

Chapter 7 by T. Schley and M van Woerkom on ‘reflection and reflective behaviour in work teams’. Extends on understandings about the role of reflection in learning. Much based on intra-psychological / individual as reflector model. However, just as important to view reflection and reflective approaches in team-based work teams. Little research on how teams contribute to organisational improvement through work team reflection so proposes need to carry out more detailed studies.

Part 2 covers – analytical perspectives – work as learning environment – has 6 chapters

Chapter 9 contributed by M. Tyler, S. Choy, R. Smith and D. Dymock discusses ‘learning in response to workplace change’. Based on large study based in 4 occupations. Found workers tended to concentrate on work tasks changes rather than on organisational strategic directions. Workers tended to concentrate on maintaining their immediate employability skills. Therefore, workplace change needs to be focused on helping workers gain skills they perceive as contributing to their professional development to complete their current jobs well.

Chapter 12 – ‘developing medical capacities and dispositions through practice-based experiences’ with J. Cleland, J. Leaman and S. Billett. Goals and objectives of workplace learning for new medical staff identified as – identification / confirmation of individual’s fit within the medical specialities; learning skills to perform as medical staff; and continue to develop as medical staff through their occupational lives.

Chapter 13 – ‘ ePortfolio: A practical tool for self-directed, reflective and collaborative professional learning’  by A. L. Daunert & L. Price provides a guide to the different ways eportfolios may be used in professional learning and development contexts. Introduces the concept of eportfolio and undertakes a review of reported advantages /positive impacts  and the reverse on challenges of eportfolios. Also provides guidelines on linking eportfolios to professional development plans based on adapted ADDIE (analyse, design, develop, implement, evaluate).

Part 3 covers methodological issues

Chapter 15 on ‘social network analyses (SNA) of learning at workplaces’ by T. Palonen and K. Hakkarainen. Provides rationale for and introduces the precepts of social network analysis as a way to study ‘socially distributed expertise’. SNA is used to find out how individuals, their groups / sub-groups relate to each other. How people interrelate to each other is a focus in organisational management studies using SNA. SNA also useful in other fields for studying spread of disease, diffusion of information, animal social organisations etc. Future potentials and limitations of SNA are discussed.

Chapter 16 with L. Filliettaz on ‘learning through interactional participatory configuration: contributions from video analysis'. Introduces the frameworks and rationale for using video analysis of workplace practice. Two items discussed in the article – video useful in exploring and making sense of interpersonal relationships in learning / workplace situations; and promoting video as a viable method for research studies into professional practice.

Chapter 17 by A. Rausch on ‘using diaries in research on work and learning’. Rationale for using diaries to record workplace learning presented and discussed. The various ways to deploy diary-based studies (diaries as research instruments) can be deployed are also presented – work task diaries, social interaction diaries, problem diaries, and interruption diaries. A comprehensive chapter on with how to, why, when etc. for the use of diarie.

Conclusion drawn by S. Billett with discussion on ‘interdependence on the boundaries between working and learning’.

Guitar Hero - book overview

Marcus. G. (2012). Guitar hero” The new musician and the science of learning published by Penguin Press.

Probably the least satisfying of Gary Marcus’ books. Professor Marcus uses his sabbatical year away from university teaching to learn how to play the guitar. Marcus is realistic about his poor sense of rhythm and tone deafness. However, his experience just prior to going on sabbatical through playing music via the computer game ‘guitar hero’ ignites a long wished for ambition to play the guitar.

The book tracks Marcus’ journey from neophyte to being able to play the guitar as part of a band. On the way, reflections on learning a skill are detailed. Descriptions of the deliberate practice cycle are sprinkled through the book along with Marcus’ new learning on music theory. Importantly, how he starts to make sense of how chords are constructed and how they contribute to musicians’ expertise. Identifying and learning the ‘signature discipline’ does make a difference to learning progress.

When I was a child, I learnt to play the piano and in hindsight, realise how much learning music has contributed to my toolbox of life skills. Aside from providing a lifelong love of music (both Western and Eastern – Chinese and Indian), learning the theory of music meant I practised the ability to make sense of symbolic concepts and acquiring the motor skills of piano playing provided improved hand-eye and brain coordination.

Marcus’ book provides practical advice for others intending to take a similar route as adults to learn how to play an instrument. Of note is the correct assertion that we are never too old to learn. Our brains were evolved to be plastic and flexible. Older people may bring with them life experiences which contribute to learning difficult skills and concepts better. Adults tend not to have the time to put into deliberate practice time to build up the 10,000 hours required for expertise but they may have acquired metacognitive skill sets assisting them to leverage off deliberate practice cycles better. The key is to maintain motivation, find the right teachers, put aside dedicated time to the task of learning and not be afraid to make (and learn) from mistakes.

The book has a useful glossary to explain musical and neurological terms, short notes for each chapter, 25 pages of relevant references (especially useful on skills learning) and index. 

Learning by watching

Writing up the final report for the learning a trade project and expanding on the section on 'learning by watching'.

I have had a look through both editions of  – Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research theory and practice to bring together various recommendations for improving learning through observations.  The chapters of most relevance in Edition 1 are chapters 8 (instructions, demonstrations and the learning process), 9 (observational learning) and 11 (deliberate practice and expert performance) and in Edition 2 are chapter 2 (how to schedule observational practice), 6 (mental imagery, action observation and skill learning) and 11 (motor skill coordination)

From these chapters, three main topics arise. These are learning by observation; motor skills learning and relationship to deliberate practice; and role of mental imagery in learning motor skills.

Learning by observation:

Observational learning occurs through processes of copying, emulation and echokinesis. Some of the processes are innate, which is why motor skills learning can be difficult to describe and articulate through voice or text. Examples from my own experience abound whereby teaching a motor action, also involves ‘going through the motion’ as well. Learners trying to explain their action, also tend to use bodily action to ‘explain’ what they have done.  Therefore, there is a need to ATTEND to how motor skills are being learnt with a proviso to not overly analyse until basic movements are attained.

‘Stages of learning by observation’ include the need to pay focused attention at the initial stages. Visual and verbal cues from coaches are helpful in ‘priming’ a learner up and providing the learner with the ‘whole picture’. Initial practice needs to be well-supported with appropriate feedback. Feedback can be from others, but also importantly from the learner (knowledge of result – KR) as aspects, small steps, nuances of motor skill learning are sometimes difficult for observers / coaches to pick up. Here is where videos can come in handy, to record initial learning and then for coaches to assist learners to pin point areas to be improved.

Once initial learning and practice is completed and the learner is building up competency, error detection and correction (from individual and others) is undertaken. By this time, the reference points for correct posture, performance and/ or process also need to be established. Otherwise, the learner is unable to self-correct as they have unclear KR.

Motor skill learning through deliberate practice:

More on this aspect in a previous post as ‘practice’ comes up highest on list of ways of learning for apprentices. Suffice to say, ‘practice makes perfect’ and the requirement to engage in repetitive work tasks, is a cornerstone of much of human learning.

Mental imagery and motor skill learning:

The role of mental imagery is signalled in stage one of the learning by observation process. The learner needs to have some form of ‘model’, physical or mental, to base deliberate practice on. Learning can be ‘on-line’ through situated practice or ‘off-line’ through mental practice. Off-line can take the form of reviewing the steps before actual physical action or reflection after physical action. Off-line learning also required to bed down and consolidate new learning, hence importance of rest, sleep and recreation. Bringing the tenets of deliberate practice together with mental imagery is an aspect not explored in the learning of vocational trade skills.

Therefore, still the three areas of learning to work on. 

1) Individuals’ learning strategies can be improved through deliberate practice, coupled with metacognition of learning progress and perhaps assisted through use of mental imagery. 

2) Guidance from others may be direct (as per coaching) or indirect (learning by observing others) and learners need to learn the skills of how to apply suggestions from others. 

3) Workplace organisation or structure of learning need to take into account and provide support for deliberate learning processes.

Deliberate practice in apprentice learning

‘Learning by doing it’ has been one of the most frequent ways of knowing coded from ‘learning a trade’ project interview transcripts. The literature is helpful with respect to practice-based learning, in particular, the literature on expertise, deliberate practice, the 10,000 hours rule and motor skills learning in sports.

Deliberate practice implies ‘knowing how to learn’. To be proficient at practising a motor skill means continual appreciation of what the body does, commitment to a regime of structured practice, diligence to work through repetitive practice, and reflective cycles to ensure each iteration of motor activity leads to small and sometimes significant improvements. Optimum deliberate practice also requires the learner to know when to seek assistance when required, work out whether to accept recommendations from coaches etc. along with know how to implement suggested improvement and also be attuned to ‘messages’ / feedback from tools, machinery, materials, ingredients etc. (i.e. socio-materiality).

The result is reflected in changes to learners’ muscular/skeletal and neuro-physical structures, leading to the merging of physical and cognitive motor skills learning. In essence, practice becomes embodied and merged into tacit knowledge frameworks.

To accomplish deliberate practice, the task to be learnt needs to be well-defined. Task performance feedback needs to follow performance and there is then opportunity to repetitiously practice the skill. In the ‘learning a trade’ data, the opportunities to engage in workplace tasks and to repeat tasks until learnt are readily identified. However, feedback is rarely mentioned. In some cases, feedback is only availed if the apprentice makes mistakes, so there is the outcomes from learning through making errors.

Motor skill learning in sports contributions several concepts. One is the need to support physical skill learning with mental imagery and the other is the use of analogy, instead of overloading the learner with copious verbal instructions. Therefore, motor skill learning through deliberate practice includes not only the need to practice in a reflective way but to also hone mental imagery and mental associative skills. ‘Learning by watching’ provides some of the models for mental imagery and coaching with the feedback triggers for on-going improvement of performance. The individual learner still has to be cognisant of all the various sensory inputs, advice from others and attuned to messages both from within themselves (the mental imagery etc. ) and surrounding their work tasks (the socio-materiality aspect). Guidelines for learners will need to include ways for them to become more metacognitive about how they approach the learning of practical trade skills.

Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, theory and practice

Book edited by A.M. Williams and N. Hodges (2004) and published by Routledge.  There is now a 2012 version on google books with different content chapters which I have ordered for the library.

Have mentioned the 2004 book in a previous blog but while away last week and through a wet public holiday day on Monday, had time to do a concentrated study of relevant chapters. Much of the research is relevant to trades based skill learning but the information needs to be unpacked and contextualised for vocational educators.  So this post is a consolidation of main ideas from relevant chapters as pertinent to vocational education.

The book has 19 chapters with the first chapter covering ‘the historical perspective on skill acquisition’ by J.J. Summers. The other chapters are organised into three sections. 9 chapters in part 1 on information processing perspectives, 5 chapters in part 2 focused on the expertise approach and 4 chapters in part 3 covering ecological / dynamic systems approaches.

Summarises of relevant chapters follow.

Chapter 1 ‘the historical perspective on skill acquisition’ by J.J. Summers

This chapter provides a good overview of the work undertaken since the 1800s on skill learning.  There is a summary of the work undertaken in experimental psychology, still useful today. In particular, foundational understanding of concepts like ‘learning curves’, ‘plateaus’, ‘transfer of learning’, ‘law of effect’, ‘ knowledge of results (KR)’ , ‘open / closed loop learning’ etc.  Of note is the need to distinguish between the learning of skills under automatic control and activities demanding high levels of concentration and the understanding that motor skills also required the acquiring of cognitive skills. Basically a move from behaviourist models to information processing models to the present melding of motor skill learning / cognitive processing with contextual practice called the ecological/dynamical systems framework.

Second chapter -  Contextual interference by T.D. Lee and D.A. Simon confirms that ‘practice makes perfect’ helps with skill learning but the phrase ‘perfect practice makes perfect’ does not. The chapter uses studies completed by Shea and Morgan (1979) on structuring practice, either in blocks of similar activity, or with practice types randomly distributed. Blocked practice led to rapid performance improvement with random practice leading to slower skill acquisition. However, the participants in the random group learnt the skill better. So acquisition is better with blocked practice but learning is enhanced with a random acquisition schedule.

Chapter 3 - The utilisation of visual feedback in the acquisition of motor skills by M.A. Khan and I.M. Franks. A relevant chapter for vocational education. Has a good overview of the need to learn through practicing under ‘real’ situations i.e. the specificity of practice. Direct feedback- actual views of arms/legs etc. (on-line) may not be possible in the execution of some skills. Indirect feedback (offline) through the awareness of body position (proprioception) may be required. However, continued feedback via external means (oral from coaches or peers, of learners’ own visual) may not always be effective as knowledge of results (KR) associations need to be interconnected with non-visual aspects. So, in learning how to complete skilled tasks, there needs to be careful consideration of what sort of oral and peer feedback will be useful. Coaches and teachers also have to be aware of the sorts of internal feedback mechanisms (body positions, muscle tension etc.) learners will be feeling and then work out how and when to provide instruction about these mechanisms.

Chapter 4 -  One trial motor learning by J. Dickinson, D. Weeks, B. Randall and D. Goodman. One trial refers to how people struggle to learn a difficult skill and then suddenly, ‘get it’. Common examples include riding a bike or learning how to ski. In vocational education, my observations of welding reveal that learning welding might also fit into this category of motor learning. At one of my vocational education workshops, one of the tutors in a manufacturing trade shared with the group, his struggles to learn welding skills and it only came right when he realised he had to control his breathing in order to complete welding projects.  In this chapter, acquisition theories and descriptions of relevance are overviewed. The chapter reports on several studies of how one-trial may occur. The chapter concludes on the difficulties in establishing how people get to the ‘aha’ moment when various stepped (scaffolded) learning / practice regimes suddenly coalesce and the learner ‘gets it’.  This is due to the various approaches individuals take towards attaining learning goals. Therefore, coaches and instructors being able to deploy a range of learning strategies and who have the empathetic understanding of learners to be able to suggest the best matched strategy may be a way forward with one trial learning / complex motor skills requiring high levels of spatial / temporal coordination.

Chapter 6 - Decision training : cognitive strategies for enhancing motor performance by J.A. Vickers, M Reeves, K.L. Chambers and S. Martell. The chapter reports on a method to encourage the interconnections between cognitive and physical learning of skills by athletes. Of note is the role of coaches to helping the process. The chapter discusses the factors that contribute to effective coaching and the need for coaching training to move on from ‘learning by observation’ of experienced coaches. The three step decision training process – decisions, triggers and tools – is introduced as a method to improve coaching.  Coaches need to help sports people learn how to make better decisions based on KR. Tools for improving performance include variable practice, random practice, bandwidth feedback, questioning, video feedback, hard-first instruction and modelling.

Chapter 7 - Understanding the role of augmented feedback: the good, the bad and the ugly with G. Wulf and C.H. Shea. Centred around the Knowledge of Results (KR) defined as feedback provided to the learner after completion of skill activity. Summarises advantages and disadvantages of KR along with a large number of studies on various aspects of deployment of KR  - reduced KR frequency, constant practice, variable practice, delay KR and error estimation, bandwidth of KR. Plus KR effect on learning complex skills and aspects of feedback and attentional focus. Some consolidation with KR playing important role in guiding performance towards the required standard; providing KR at every trial results in dependence on external KR and also blocks process for attaining intrinsic information plus results in increased variability in responses.  So need for KR to be carefully targeted and learner still has to learn and be responsive to own KR.

Chapter 8 - Instructions, demonstrations and the learning process: creating and constraining movement options by N.J. Hodges and I.M. Franks. A very relevant chapter deconstructing the many myths about practical skills learning with an emphasis on the provision of verbal or written instructions that are apart from or part of demonstrations. Two main sections to the chapter. First section on information- processing accounts of skill acquisition. Changes in information processing demands as skill increases is covered – novices need to attend more at initial practice and as skill becomes ‘automated’ less attention is required. In order to decrease the high number of demands when first learning a skill, visual (pictures, watching demonstration) or verbal cues may assist to simply the learning content.  In effect, priming the novice with cognitive, declarative type input before structured, on-going and repetitive practice lessens the information processing demands to the final automatic, procedural, non-verbal stage. As learning progresses, error detection and correction mechanisms along with reference-of-correctness points need to be identified and the learning assisted to learn these. The second section in the chapter discusses learning as a dynamic process dictated by constraints including coordination dynamics. To offset the constraints, recommendations are to encourage learning of movements through movement variability and being mindful of complexity of tasks (for instance ambidextrous activities) which might benefit from assisting learners to ‘decouple’ – learn skill from scratch and not as an extension of pre-existing but slightly different skill; be attuned to the levels of control for different parts of the sensori-motor system (posture, then repetitive locomotion than targeted purposeful movement); accessibility to knowledge infers that not all learners are able to learn by observation – especially of complex skills (see chapter on one trial); and helping learners to identify the ‘end points’ of a sequence of movements sometimes helps.

Chapter 9 - Observational learning: is it time we took another look? By R.R. Horn and M. Williams. Begins with a short overview of the concepts of imitation and observational learning defining terms like matched-dependent behaviour, copying, emulation and echokinesis. Then summarises cognitive approaches and Bandura’s social cognitive theory as one that is helpful  - attentional, retentional, production and motivation processes. Then critiques social cognitive theory to lead into discussion on an ecological alternative

Chapter 11 - Deliberate practice and expert performance: defining the path of excellence with P. Ward, N. J. Hodges, A.M Williams and J.L. Starkes. This chapter provides an overview of the theory of deliberate practice and includes some critical analysis along with outstanding issues not addressed by the theory. These issues include developmental (pre-peak practice and past performance peaks) and methodical (reliability and validity of data) issues. Recommendations on how these issues may be addressed through sports –based research are proposed. A good chapter to balance the accepted tenets of the deliberate practice theory.

Chapter 14 - From novice to expert performance: memory, attention and the control of complex sensori-motor skills with S.L. Beilock and T.H. Carr. Begins with an overview of theories of skill acquisition and the role of memory  and attention in acquiring skills. Uses studies in golf to illustrate concepts. Of importance is the discussion on ‘choking under pressure’ and reasons this occurs.

Chapter 15 - perceptual and cognitive expertise in sport: Implications for skill acquisition and performance enhancement with A.M. Williams, P. Ward and N.J. Smeeton. Summarise key findings in perceptual / cognitive expertise including pattern recognition, advance cue usage, visual search behaviour, situational probabilities and maturation and practice. Experts tend to have developed through specific practice, the ability to look for contextual clues that novices are unaware of. How perceptual / cognitive skills can be developed is then introduced with recommendations for instruction. Of interest is the discussion on when and how to use implicit or explicit learning strategies.  Finds that video simulation and appropriate instruction to important performance cues  and feedback can be helpful.

Chapter 16 - the evolution of coordination during skill acquisition: the dynamic systems approach by R. Huys, A. Daffershofer and P.J. Beek. The chapter is an introduction to the newer theories underpinned by dynamic systems which views learning as fluid and dependent on a wide range of difficult to pin down variables. A proposal is that learning is to do with changes in the way we are able to coordinate a range of physical and mental schema (coordinative flexibility). A range of theories that are framed by dynamic systems are overviewed and discussed.

Chapter 17 - perceptual learning is mastering perceptual degrees of freedom by G.J.P. Savelsbergh, J. Van der Kamp, R.R.D. Oudejans and M.A. Scott. An extension of one of the theories introduced in the previous chapter . ‘Perceptual degrees of freedom’ is influenced by the writings of Bernstein on motor coordination – including stages of freezing, freeing and exploiting. Practical applications in through discussions on soccer and basketball are provided to example the concepts. Recommends that firstly, learning a skill should have few variables and be situated in practice. After basic skills are attained, freeing and exploitation phrases may be introduced with more variable conditions to widen skill repertoire. 

Book on expertise

Ericsson, K.A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P.J., &  Hoffman, R. R. (Eds.) (2006). The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

This book has 6 sections with 3 subsections in section 5 and a total of 42 chapters. I have summarised the sections with the most relevance but almost every chapter contains useful information. The book's main asset is the readability of each chapter along with the applied nature of most of the information.

Section 1 - introduction and perspective
Chapter 1 - an introduction to the book: its development organisation and content - K. A.Ericsson
Defines expertise and expert performance - page 3 and provides the historical evolution of studies in expertise - page 4

2 - Two approaches to the study of expert characteristics - M.T.H. Chi
Absolute and Relative approaches and summarises ways in which experts excel - pg 23 and ways in which experts fall short - pg 24.

3 - Expertise, talent and social encouragement - E. Hunt
 Proposes that different types of expertise, make different types of cognitive demands - pg 31

Section 2 - overview of approaches to the study of expertise - brief historical accounts of theories and methods

4. studies of expertise from psychological perspectives -P.J. Feltovich, M.J. Prietula &  K. A. Ericsson
Lists the generalisable characteristics of expertise - pg 46 --
limited in scope and elite performance does not transfer
knowledge and content matter are important to expertise
expertise involves larger and more integrated cognitive units
involves functional, abstracted representations of presented information
involves automated basic strokes
selective access of relevant information
involves reflection
is an adaptation

5. Educators and expertise: A brief history of theories and methods - R.J.Amirault & R.K. Branson
6. Expert systems : a perspective from computer science - B.G. Buchanan, R. Davis &  E.A. Feigenbaum
7. Professionalisation, scientific expertise and elitism: a sociological perspective -J.Evetts, H.A. Mieg & U.Felt
Above 3 chapters provide historical overviews on development and propose theorectical frameworks for study of expertise.

Section 3 - methods for studying the structure of expertise
8. observation of work practices in natural settings - W.J. Clancey
overview of how various methods have evolved - scientific observation in natural settings: visual anthropology. Details se of ethnomethodology's analytical perspective - 'learning to see'
**details units of analysis - pg 136 and methods of observation of natural settings -

9. Methods for studying the structure of expertise: Psychometric approaches - P.L. Ackerman & M.E.Beier
10. Laboratory methods for assessing experts' and novices' knowledge - M.T.H. Chi
Both above more aligned to quantitative methodologies.

11. Task analysis - J.M. Shraagen
Useful background and description of various approaches, for instance Miller - task description and task analysis, Flanagan - critical incident technique and hierarchical task analysis.
Provides 2 case studies - pg 193 - improving troubleshooting - pg 196 - shore-based pilotage - to illustrate how task analysis proceeds.

12. Eliciting and representing the knowledge of experts - R.R.Hoffman & G. Lintern
Presents methods for representing expert knowledge through cognitive task analysis CTA. including methods for critical decision model; work domain analysis; and concept mapping

13. Protocol analysis and expert thought: Concurrent verbalisations of thinking during experts' performance on representative tasks - K.A. Ericsson
Presents the pros and cons of this method.

14. Simulation for performance and training - P. Ward, A.M. Williams & P.A. Hancock
An overview.

Section 4 - methods for studying the acquisition and maintenance of expertise
15. Laboratory studies of training, skill acquisition and retention of performance - R. W. Proctor & K-P. L. Vu
16. Retrospective interviews in the study of expertise and expert performance - L.A. Sosniak
17. Time budgets, diaries, and analyses of concurrent practice activities - J.M. Deakin, J. Cote & A. S. Harvey
18. Histriometric methods -D.K. Simonton
All 4 chapters provide clear descriptions and some examples.

Section 5 - domains of expertise
5A - professional
19. Expertise in medicine and surgery - G.Norman, K. Eva, L. Brooks & S. Hamstra

20. Expertise and transportation -F.T. Durso & A.R. Dattel

21. Expertise in software design - S. Sonnetag, C. Niessen & J. Volmer

22. Professional writing expertise - R. T. Kellogg

23. Professional judgments and 'naturalistic decision making' - K.G. Ross, J.L. Shafer & G. Klein
NDM - requires - perceptual skill; mental modes; sense of typicality and associations; routines; declarative knowledge; mental simulation; assessing the situation; finding leverage points; managing uncertainty; and understanding one's own strengths and limitations (metacognition) - pg 405

24. Decision-making expertise - J.F. Yates & M.D. Tschirhart

25. The making of a dream team: when expert teams do best - E. Salas, M.A. Rosen, C. S. Burke, G.F. Goodwin & S. M. Fiore

5B - arts, sports and motor skills
26. music - A.C. Lehmann & H. Gruber

27. Expert performance in sport: A cognitive perspective - N.J. Hodges, J.L. Starkes & C. Mcmahon

28. Artistic performance:Acting, ballet and contemporary dance - H. Noice & T. Noice

29. Perceptual-motor expertise - D.A. Rosenbaum, J.S. Augustyn, R.G. Cohen & S.A. Jax

5C - games and other types of expertise
30. Expertise in chess - F. Gobet &  N. Charness

31. exceptional memory - J.M.Wilding &  E.R. Valentine

32. mathematical expertise - B. Butterworth

33. expertise in history - J.F. Voss & J. Wiley

section 6 - generalizable mechanisms mediating expertise and general issues
34. a merging theory of expertise and intelligence - J.Horn &  H. Masunaga

35. Tacit knowledge, practical intelligence and expertise - A. T. Cianciolo, C. Matthews, R.J. Sternberg & R.K. Wagner
Definitions of tacit knowledge - pg 615 and practical intelligence pg 616

36. Expertise and situation awareness - M.R. Endsley

37. Brain changes in the development of expertise: Neuroanatomical and neurophysiological evidence about skill-based adaptations - N.M. Hill & W. Schneider
themes in learning literature on brain processing and brain structure - pg 658
learning is localised and very specialised
learning and processing occur in the same cortical locations
learning can produce both increases and decreases in the areas of activity
in some tasks there is a shifting between brain regions
relevant info/objects and other stimuli are uniquely processed by experts (e.g. birds by bird watchers)
learning can produce detectable morphological changes
motor areas can rapidly change as a result of skilled movement practivce and improved performance - pg 671
notable for plastic change with extensive experience and practice

38. The influence of experience and deliberate practice on the development of superior expert performance - K.A. Ericsson
** details the work on delibrate practice

39. Development and adaptation of expertise: Role of self-regulatory processes and beliefs - B.J. Zimmerman

40. aging and expertise - R.T. Krampe & N. Charness

41. Social and sociological factors in the development of expertise - H.A. Mieg

42. Modes of expertise in creative thinking: evidence from case studies - R.W. Weisberg

All in, much or relevance to pick up in this book. It does have a good range of chapters covering the current state of learning on expertise.