This was the first book I explored in the area of
evolutionary psychology. Mainly because my various digital alert systems search
for ‘apprentic*’ and this book came up a few times via various alerts. I parked
the book for summer reading and am happy I did finally make time to study it in
greater detail. This book is easier reading than Sterelny’s previous book
‘Thought in a hostile world’ as
briefly over viewed in last week's blog. “Evolved apprentice’ concentrates on the ‘social intelligence hypothesis'. Examples from primate studies, archaeology and
ethnography are used through the book to illustrate the thesis. In summary, the
book explores how the human brain evolved due to the need to learn quickly to
cope with a challenging environment. Living together in family groups provided
proto-humans with the opportunity to learn from each other. This ensured
‘technology’ was not lost from one generation to the next and small incremental
improvements or flashes of inspiration could be actioned.
The book has 8 chapters. Short summaries of each chapter
follow:
1)
Challenge of novelty –
the social intelligence hypothesis is summarised and discussed. The need for increased learning in
early hominids was premised on the increasing complexity of tasks required to
sustain the hunter-gatherer life. Humans have many needs requiring reciprocity
in group relationships. Division of labour within human groupings both
horizontally and vertically required specialised communication skills. Humans
also are comparatively long lived, with good memories leading to options for
inter-generational verbal transmission of cultural skills. Learning of social
skills also involve learning both the good and bad about human nature.
2)
Accumulating cognitive capital – precepts of the
apprentice leaning model are discussed in this chapter. The 4 virtues of
apprentice learning are identified and discussed. Virtues are: apprenticeship
learning can be structured incrementally; complex tasks and high-fidelity /
high band-with knowledge can be learnt; skill transmission may occur
‘informally’ without adult teaching or formal explicit instruction; and ethnographic
studies have shown that learning through apprenticeship works – due to
reciprocal balance between productivity and returns from learner.
3)
Adapted individuals, adapted environments – here
the understandings of Sapiens and Neanderthal evolution are unravelled to
explain why one species carried on and the other became extinct. One
explanation is the ability of sapiens to think symbolically and this allowed
concepts to be carried from one generation to the next. At various stages,
abrupt ‘technological leaps’ occurred, pushing development of sapiens ahead.
These innovations were not lost from one generation to the next but were then
further refined, leading to sufficient knowledge accumulation to allow for the
next progressive leap.
4)
Human cooperation syndrome – co-evolution of
“cooperation, information-guided foraging and niche construction” of context
specific knowledge are premised to have been the difference between hominins
and other apes. The ‘grandmother hypothesis’ is put forward as one advantage
hominins could use to advance. Grandmothers provided a source for
intergenerational knowledge. They also were able to mind young children while
parents hunted / foraged, increasing the group’s ability to maintain a
sustainable life. Activities like foraging and hunting required more complex
communication techniques. Laying down the ground work for evolution to select
for a species which had brains to handle the needs of cooperation and group
living.
5)
Costs and commitments - this chapter tidies up loose ends in the
social intelligence hypothesis. For example why ‘freeloaders’, bullies
etc. and their opposites of altruism have evolved. The cost of cooperation is
weight up with the advantages afforded. Costs may be investments for the future
and honesty creates long-term advantages perhaps not for the individual but for
the larger group.
6)
Signals, cooperation and learning – here the
discussion expands on the role of signals and communication and the role of
honesty. Cultural learning’s advantages and disadvantages are discussed.
7)
From skills to norms – the ethical connotations
to the social intelligence hypothesis are introduced and discussed in this
chapter. Why and how morals have developed and how they are learnt, transmitted
through cultural norms and the implications are introduced and extended.
8)
Cooperation and conflict – this last chapter,
brings the various contributions to the social intelligence hypothesis to a
close. The need for how humans have evolved to
acknowledge ‘give and take’ and how individuals, societies etc, balance ‘strong
reciprocity’ brings the book to a close.
The book has notes for each chapter, 25 pages of references
and index. References provide good overview of the relevant literature from
anthropology, archaeology, ethnographical studies and evolutionary psychology.
All in, the book provides good background leavened with many pertinent examples
from contemporary work on understanding how evolutionary pressures of our
pre-history contributed to how we now communicate, learn and live.
