Book edited by A.M. Williams and N. Hodges (2004) and
published by Routledge. There is now a 2012 version on google books with different content chapters which I have ordered for the library.
Have mentioned the 2004 book in a previous blog but while away
last week and through a wet public holiday day on Monday, had time to do a concentrated study of
relevant chapters. Much of the research is relevant to trades based skill
learning but the information needs to be unpacked and contextualised for
vocational educators. So this post is a
consolidation of main ideas from relevant chapters as pertinent to vocational
education.
The book has 19 chapters with the first chapter covering
‘the historical perspective on skill acquisition’ by J.J. Summers. The other
chapters are organised into three sections. 9 chapters in part 1 on information
processing perspectives, 5 chapters in part 2 focused on the expertise approach
and 4 chapters in part 3 covering ecological / dynamic systems approaches.
Summarises of relevant chapters follow.
Chapter 1 ‘the historical perspective on skill acquisition’
by J.J. Summers
This
chapter provides a good overview of the work undertaken since the 1800s on
skill learning. There is a summary of
the work undertaken in experimental psychology, still useful today. In
particular, foundational understanding of concepts like ‘learning curves’,
‘plateaus’, ‘transfer of learning’, ‘law of effect’, ‘ knowledge of results
(KR)’ , ‘open / closed loop learning’ etc.
Of note is the need to distinguish between the learning of skills under
automatic control and activities demanding high levels of concentration and the
understanding that motor skills also required the acquiring of cognitive
skills. Basically a move from behaviourist models to information processing
models to the present melding of motor skill learning / cognitive processing
with contextual practice called the ecological/dynamical systems framework.
Second chapter - Contextual
interference by T.D. Lee and D.A. Simon confirms that ‘practice makes perfect’
helps with skill learning but the phrase ‘perfect practice makes perfect’ does
not. The chapter uses studies completed by Shea and Morgan (1979) on
structuring practice, either in blocks of similar activity, or with practice
types randomly distributed. Blocked practice led to rapid performance improvement
with random practice leading to slower skill acquisition. However, the
participants in the random group learnt the skill better. So acquisition is
better with blocked practice but learning is enhanced with a random acquisition
schedule.
Chapter 3 - The utilisation of visual feedback in the
acquisition of motor skills by M.A. Khan and I.M. Franks. A relevant chapter
for vocational education. Has a good overview of the need to learn through
practicing under ‘real’ situations i.e. the specificity of practice. Direct
feedback- actual views of arms/legs etc. (on-line) may not be possible in the
execution of some skills. Indirect feedback (offline) through the awareness of
body position (proprioception) may be required. However, continued feedback via
external means (oral from coaches or peers, of learners’ own visual) may not
always be effective as knowledge of results (KR) associations need to be
interconnected with non-visual aspects. So, in learning how to complete skilled
tasks, there needs to be careful consideration of what sort of oral and peer
feedback will be useful. Coaches and teachers also have to be aware of the
sorts of internal feedback mechanisms (body positions, muscle tension etc.)
learners will be feeling and then work out how and when to provide instruction
about these mechanisms.
Chapter 4 - One trial
motor learning by J. Dickinson, D. Weeks, B. Randall and D. Goodman. One trial
refers to how people struggle to learn a difficult skill and then suddenly,
‘get it’. Common examples include riding a bike or learning how to ski. In
vocational education, my observations of welding reveal that learning welding
might also fit into this category of motor learning. At one of my vocational
education workshops, one of the tutors in a manufacturing trade shared with the
group, his struggles to learn welding skills and it only came right when he
realised he had to control his breathing in order to complete welding projects.
In this chapter, acquisition theories
and descriptions of relevance are overviewed. The chapter reports on several
studies of how one-trial may occur. The chapter concludes on the difficulties
in establishing how people get to the ‘aha’ moment when various stepped
(scaffolded) learning / practice regimes suddenly coalesce and the learner
‘gets it’. This is due to the various
approaches individuals take towards attaining learning goals. Therefore,
coaches and instructors being able to deploy a range of learning strategies and
who have the empathetic understanding of learners to be able to suggest the
best matched strategy may be a way forward with one trial learning / complex
motor skills requiring high levels of spatial / temporal coordination.
Chapter 6 - Decision training : cognitive strategies for
enhancing motor performance by J.A. Vickers, M Reeves, K.L. Chambers and S.
Martell. The chapter reports on a method to encourage the interconnections
between cognitive and physical learning of skills by athletes. Of note is the
role of coaches to helping the process. The chapter discusses the factors that
contribute to effective coaching and the need for coaching training to move on
from ‘learning by observation’ of experienced coaches. The three step decision
training process – decisions, triggers and tools – is introduced as a method to
improve coaching. Coaches need to help
sports people learn how to make better decisions based on KR. Tools for
improving performance include variable practice, random practice, bandwidth
feedback, questioning, video feedback, hard-first instruction and modelling.
Chapter 7 - Understanding the role of augmented feedback:
the good, the bad and the ugly with G. Wulf and C.H. Shea. Centred around the
Knowledge of Results (KR) defined as feedback provided to the learner after
completion of skill activity. Summarises advantages and disadvantages of KR
along with a large number of studies on various aspects of deployment of
KR - reduced KR frequency, constant
practice, variable practice, delay KR and error estimation, bandwidth of KR.
Plus KR effect on learning complex skills and aspects of feedback and
attentional focus. Some consolidation with KR playing important role in guiding
performance towards the required standard; providing KR at every trial results
in dependence on external KR and also blocks process for attaining intrinsic
information plus results in increased variability in responses. So need for KR to be carefully targeted and
learner still has to learn and be responsive to own KR.
Chapter 8 - Instructions, demonstrations and the learning
process: creating and constraining movement options by N.J. Hodges and I.M.
Franks. A very relevant chapter deconstructing the many myths about practical
skills learning with an emphasis on the provision of verbal or written
instructions that are apart from or part of demonstrations. Two main sections
to the chapter. First section on information- processing accounts of skill
acquisition. Changes in information processing demands as skill increases is
covered – novices need to attend more at initial practice and as skill becomes
‘automated’ less attention is required. In order to decrease the high number of
demands when first learning a skill, visual (pictures, watching demonstration)
or verbal cues may assist to simply the learning content. In effect, priming the novice with cognitive,
declarative type input before structured, on-going and repetitive practice
lessens the information processing demands to the final automatic, procedural,
non-verbal stage. As learning progresses, error detection and correction
mechanisms along with reference-of-correctness points need to be identified and
the learning assisted to learn these. The second section in the chapter discusses
learning as a dynamic process dictated by constraints including coordination
dynamics. To offset the constraints, recommendations are to encourage learning
of movements through movement variability and being mindful of complexity of
tasks (for instance ambidextrous activities) which might benefit from assisting
learners to ‘decouple’ – learn skill from scratch and not as an extension of
pre-existing but slightly different skill; be attuned to the levels of control
for different parts of the sensori-motor system (posture, then repetitive
locomotion than targeted purposeful movement); accessibility to knowledge
infers that not all learners are able to learn by observation – especially of
complex skills (see chapter on one trial); and helping learners to identify the
‘end points’ of a sequence of movements sometimes helps.
Chapter 9 - Observational learning: is it time we took
another look? By R.R. Horn and M. Williams. Begins with a short overview of the
concepts of imitation and observational learning defining terms like
matched-dependent behaviour, copying, emulation and echokinesis. Then
summarises cognitive approaches and Bandura’s social cognitive theory as one
that is helpful - attentional,
retentional, production and motivation processes. Then critiques social
cognitive theory to lead into discussion on an ecological alternative
Chapter 11 - Deliberate practice and expert performance:
defining the path of excellence with P. Ward, N. J. Hodges, A.M Williams and
J.L. Starkes. This chapter provides an overview of the theory of deliberate
practice and includes some critical analysis along with outstanding issues not
addressed by the theory. These issues include developmental (pre-peak practice
and past performance peaks) and methodical (reliability and validity of data)
issues. Recommendations on how these issues may be addressed through sports
–based research are proposed. A good chapter to balance the accepted tenets of
the deliberate practice theory.
Chapter 14 - From novice to expert performance: memory,
attention and the control of complex sensori-motor skills with S.L. Beilock and
T.H. Carr. Begins with an overview of theories of skill acquisition and the
role of memory and attention in
acquiring skills. Uses studies in golf to illustrate concepts. Of importance is
the discussion on ‘choking under pressure’ and reasons this occurs.
Chapter 15 - perceptual and cognitive expertise in sport:
Implications for skill acquisition and performance enhancement with A.M.
Williams, P. Ward and N.J. Smeeton. Summarise key findings in perceptual /
cognitive expertise including pattern recognition, advance cue usage, visual
search behaviour, situational probabilities and maturation and practice.
Experts tend to have developed through specific practice, the ability to look
for contextual clues that novices are unaware of. How perceptual / cognitive
skills can be developed is then introduced with recommendations for
instruction. Of interest is the discussion on when and how to use implicit or
explicit learning strategies. Finds that
video simulation and appropriate instruction to important performance cues and feedback can be helpful.
Chapter 16 - the evolution of coordination during skill
acquisition: the dynamic systems approach by R. Huys, A. Daffershofer and P.J.
Beek. The chapter is an introduction to the newer theories underpinned by
dynamic systems which views learning as fluid and dependent on a wide range of
difficult to pin down variables. A proposal is that learning is to do with
changes in the way we are able to coordinate a range of physical and mental
schema (coordinative flexibility). A range of theories that are framed by
dynamic systems are overviewed and discussed.
Chapter 17 - perceptual learning is mastering perceptual
degrees of freedom by G.J.P. Savelsbergh, J. Van der Kamp, R.R.D. Oudejans and
M.A. Scott. An extension of one of the theories introduced in the previous chapter
. ‘Perceptual degrees of freedom’ is influenced by the writings of Bernstein on
motor coordination – including stages of freezing, freeing and exploiting. Practical
applications in through discussions on soccer and basketball are provided to
example the concepts. Recommends that firstly, learning a skill should have few
variables and be situated in practice. After basic skills are attained, freeing
and exploitation phrases may be introduced with more variable conditions to
widen skill repertoire.
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